Racism in Toni Morrisons The Bluest Eye Essay - 1955 Words

Since childhood, we all have been taught that â€Å"racism is bad† and should be avoided at all costs. We have been told that â€Å"everyone is a child of God and we are all created equal.† In fact, Americans are praised for the so-called equality they possess. However, renowned author Toni Morrison sheds light on the sheltered and unspoken truth that everyone—to some extent—is racist. â€Å"Home† is a reflective essay in which Morrison explains that her triumphs against racist ideologies are evident throughout her various novels (â€Å"Home† 3). In Morrison’s first novel, The Bluest Eye, instead of establishing a home where race does not matter—a home which she dreams of in her essay—she creates just the opposite (3). In this novel, by using direct†¦show more content†¦The middle class black society and the lower class black society, for example, are quite different from each other and are constantly conflicting . In The Bluest Eye, Morrison distinguishes these divisions and their tensions through characters like Geraldine, Junior, and Maureen Peal, who represent the privileged division of black culture. On the contrary, the less privileged division is represented by the MacTeer family and the â€Å"relentlessly and aggressively ugly† Breedlove family (The Bluest Eye 38). Tension between the divided African American society is clearly represented by such characterizations throughout Morrison’s novel. Characters Claudia and Frieda MacTeer show envious disapproval towards Maureen Peal, a wealthy and stylish lighter-skinned African American girl who the girls refer to as a â€Å"disrupter of seasons† (62). Maureen’s character introduces the disruptive and wealthy society within the novel making the division between classes in black culture more apparent. The girls—clearly representing separate societal classes—do not relate to one another despite their shared race. Verifying that Maureen defines perfection in a black society, Claudia and Frieda had to â€Å"[look] hard to find [Maureen’s] flaws to restore [their] equilibrium† (63). The self-conscious girls literally search for any apparent faults middle-class Maureen may have in order to make themselves feel better about their â€Å"less beautiful† appearance and lower rank in society. TensionShow MoreRelatedRacism And Sexism In Toni Morrisons The Bluest Eye2105 Words   |  9 PagesHow does racism and sexism play a part in the novel, The Bluest Eye? Have you ever experienced or seen racism and/or sexism and you were not able to help make the situation better? Throughout the novel The Bluest Eye, the author, Toni Morrison takes us on a journey of an eleven-year-old girl named Pecola Breedlove whose love for blond hair and blue eyes affects how she perceives everyone around her. The novel takes place in Lorain, Ohio where Morrison grew up. Pecola wishes for blue eyes because sheRead MoreRacism By Toni Morrison Analysis982 Words   |  4 PagesThe noble laureate winning author Toni Morrison comments that â€Å"racism hurts in a very personal way† (Bouson 103). This might be a hint towards the long term generational consequences that racism causes. Having the entire future generation jeopardized by the concept of racism is indeed a pain that will hurt anyone who has love for his/her community. Morrison believes that the lives and relationships of people are affected by racism as she remarks â€Å"Because of it, people do al l sorts of things in theirRead MoreAnalysis Of The Bluest Eye1555 Words   |  7 Pages The Bluest Eeye Bbackground A woman’s race and the time period she lives in influences not only whether she will be a victim of sexual assault but also, the punishment of the offender. Toni Morrison, The author of The Bluest Eye, a victim of segregation, deals with sexual assault and segregation in her book. Chole Anthony Wofford, who goes by the name of Toni Morrison when writing her books, was born in Lorain, Ohio on February 18, 1931. Her father had several jobs to supportRead MoreWoman Is The Nigger Of The Wolrd: The Bluest Eye by Toni Morrison934 Words   |  4 Pagesnot only been looked down upon by white people, they have been dehumanized. Toni Morrison is controversial for pillorying this topic, that has been silenced by white society for years, not from the ‘Master Narrative’ perspective, that is the white male one’s, but from the exact opposite of this: an African-American girl. By doing this, she does not only awake pity for Pecola at the reader but also show how anti -black racism is constructed by social forces, interracially as well as intra-racially. MorrisonRead MoreSelf-Hatred and the Aesthetics of Beauty in The Bluest Eye by Toni Morrison1287 Words   |  6 PagesBeauty in The Bluest Eye by Toni Morrison Topic: Discuss the issues of self-hatred and the aesthetics of beauty in The Bluest Eye by Toni Morrison. What role do they play in the novel and how do they relate to its theme? Self-hatred leads to self-destruction†¦ Self-hatred is something that can thoroughly destroy an individual. As it was fictitiously evidenced in Toni Morrison’s The Bluest Eye, it can lead an individual to insanity. Toni Morrison raises the idea that racism and class canRead MoreRacism And Discrimination On African Americans1210 Words   |  5 Pagesthe impact of racism and discrimination on African Americans through her frequent use of symbolism.2 In The Bluest Eye, an extremely important symbol is blue eyes (Crayton 73). Blue eyes are used to symbolize racially based beauty standards and the power associated with whiteness (â€Å"Bluest† LitCharts). In the novel, society believes that if a person does not have white skin, he or she is not beautiful. Pecola Breedlove falls victim to this widespread belief and longs to possess blue eyes. In her worldRead MoreThe Bluest Eye By Toni Morrison956 Words   |  4 PagesHistory of Slavery Influenced the Characters of The Bluest Eye Unlike so many pieces of American literature that involve and examine the history of slavery and the years of intensely-entrenched racism that ensued, the overall plot of the novel, The Bluest Eye by Toni Morrison, does not necessarily involve slavery directly, but rather examines the aftermath by delving into African-American self-hatred. Nearly all of the main characters in The Bluest Eye who are African American are dominated by the endlessRead More The Importance of the Eye in Toni Morrisons The Bluest Eye Essay example1221 Words   |  5 PagesThe Importance of the Eye in Toni Morrisons The Bluest Eye      Ã‚  Ã‚   In Toni Morrisons The Bluest Eye, the characters eyes are everything. The word eye appears over and over with rich adjectives that describe color, movement, and nuance of expression to signify a characters mood and psychological state. Morrison emphasizes the paradox of eyes: Eyes are at times a window to enlightenment, however, what eyes see is not always objective truth, but instead a distortion of reality into whatRead MoreThe Bluest Eye By Toni Morrison Essay1314 Words   |  6 PagesThe Bluest Eye, by Toni Morrison, encompasses the themes of youth, gender, and race. The African American Civil Rights Movement had recently ended at the time the novel was written. In the book, Morrison utilizes a first-person story to convey her views on racial inequality. The protagonist and her friends find themselves in moments where they are filled with embarrassment and have a wish to flee such events. Since they are female African Americans, they are humiliated in society. One of Morrison’sRead MoreToni Morrison: the Bluest Eye and Sula Essay2313 Words   |  10 Pagestook the place of pamphlets, poems, and novels. Themes such as the quest for freedom, the nature of evil, and the powerful verses the powerless became the themes of African- American literature. In a book called Fiction and Folklore: the novels of Toni Morrision author Trudier Harris explains that Early folk beliefs were so powerful a force in the lives of slaves that their masters sought to co-opt that power. Slave masters used such beliefs in an attempt to control the behavior of their slaves(Harris

Distribution Channels and Supply Chain Management in...

Article Overview: (30%) In this chapter, the authors focus on how technology firms manage complexities of distribution channels and supply chains to successfully deliver products in high-tech market. The authors claim that effective managing distribution helps the firms to reduce redundancies and inefficiencies in their production system. Consequently, the firms can improve their alliances’ relationships (i.e., customers, suppliers, manufacturers and distributors) that increase customer satisfaction and cost advantage. However, if firms have ineffective channel strategies, conflicts between firms and their alliances can be occurred. Because they usually have different goals, they think that they cannot solve the conflicts by common†¦show more content†¦Similarly, the firms can use these plans (or â€Å"relational norms†) to share mutual benefits and improve collaborative communication among the members. Hybrid channels are introduced to help firms to increase m arket share, keep cost efficiency and reduce conflicts. The hybrid channels are also designed associated with customer relationship management (â€Å"CRM†) to hit customer demands at the right time and to facilitate customers to comfortably access the products in several ways. Moreover, there are two indicators used to evaluate whether channel performance has capabilities or not. First, quantitative indicator concentrates on sale volumes of intermediaries and the market share of manufacturers. Second, qualitative indicators evaluate channel performance based on how efficiency the collaboration between suppliers, dealers and manufacturers is. Regarding supply chains, firms should design supply chain plans to handle product demand and supply uncertainties. In addition, firms can apply technology that can be used to improve more effectively the capabilities of supply chain management. For example, firms can check their product stocks via the Internet (e.g., Online platform). To control stocks, firm can use â€Å"RFID† to automatically count the amount of products. Key Learning Points: (30%) †¢ Some people believe that direct channels can reduce prices of products.Show MoreRelatedCase Study Of Personal Computers In The U. S. Consumers861 Words   |  4 Pagesretailers to have on site tech support teams that specialize in building and customizing personal computers. The number of customizations being demanded from consumers will determine the turnaround delivery time. Giving more relatable and personal customer service to U.S. consumers will create more confidence in patronizing local retailers. 2. Does the simultaneous use of multiple sales/distributions channels (e.g., direct online sales and sales through retail stores) create a channel conflict? The opportunityRead MoreIntroduction to Supply Chain Management System: Dell Computer Corporation1451 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction to Supply Chain Management (SCM) System Supply chain management (SCM) is the combination of activities which help a company to improve the methods to make a product or service and deliver it to customers. (Larson, 2004) SCM encompasses the planning and management of all activities involved in sourcing, procurement, conversion, and logistics management activities. 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Moreover, the company was emphasizing more and more on shareholder value and customer responsiveness so they were looking into reengineering some of their processes which can help improve their current forecasting model and reduce OTD cycle times substantially. With new business models prevailing, Ford did not want to be left behind; they were looking at high-tech industry’s growthRead MoreAnalysis of A Spain-Based Retailer: Zara803 Words   |  3 PagesSpain-based, low cost retailer has a supply chain management and hard to replicate. Surprisingly, they prompt the customers to buy the clothes the moment they see it and not wait for the discounts. Small and recurrent shipments are the reason for this. The supply chain management and the policy mentioned above gives Zara a competitive advantage over other Fashion retailers. Zara believes speed and responsiveness are the important factors than cost. Zara is chain store of Inditex. Its headquartersRead MoreOperations strategy of HUL1694 Words   |  7 Pagesfast moving consumer goods industry in the Indian market which was formed in 1933 as Lever Brothers India Limited. Its headquarter is in Mumbai, India. The company provides employment for more than 41,000 employees. With its 20 plus brands it announces its presence to various consumer segments. HUL covers about 6.4 million outlets in all over the country. The HUL products have made their presence in our country so strong that according to Nielsen Market Research, two out of three Indian consumers useRead MoreGeneral Motors Supply Chain Essay1574 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction Over the years, the U. S. auto industrys market has been experiencing fluctuations due to many reasons including: price, quality and foreign competition. General Motors Corporation (GM) which had been the leading car and truck manufacturer had been experiencing declining market share and facing stiff competition from both U.S manufacturers and foreign imports such as the Asian auto producers that included Toyota, Honda and Nissan. The main reason for increased foreign competition wasRead MoreMarketing Plan For Wal Mart Essay1450 Words   |  6 Pagesstarted in 1980 the plan to expand nationwide, and in 1990s Target created what is considered as a new store formats. One of Target keys to success was its low price, high quality products among other retailers. In 2000 the company got its name The company got the name Target in 2000. While Target failed to enter the Canadian market due to a security and price issues, the company had a huge success in the United States. The design that was adapted by Target would differentiate the brand from otherRead MoreThe Supply Chain Of Zara Essay1140 Words   |  5 Pagesclothing. It always keeps in mind to improve their production quality. Supply chain management is the intercorrection of organizations managements that relate to each other through linkages between processes that produce value to customer. The term supply network refers to all operations that were linked together to provide goods and services through this network along individual channels or standards of that network. The supply chain of Zara is unique. Currently they call for manufacturers to outsourceRead MoreManagement of Marketing Channels Assignment2640 Words   |  11 PagesManagement Development Institute of Singapore in Tashkent Faculty of Business Marketing Management of Marketing Channels Assignment Name: Gafurov Nodirbek Batch#: B0900377 Table of Contents Executive Summary 3 Introduction 4 The Role of Supply Chain Management 5 Flextronics Logistics Management 7 Reverse Logistics 9 Flextronics in Channel Management 10 References: 12 Executive Summary This assignment demonstrates the most key business areas of the given, Flextronics

Role of Advertising in Newspapers Free Essays

The Role of Advertising in Newspapers Revenues from sales of advertising pay for the bulk of the costs of newspaper production. That’s why the reading public pays so little for its newspaper. What is advertising? An advertisement is a message designed to sell the advertiser’s goods or services to prospective buyers. We will write a custom essay sample on Role of Advertising in Newspapers or any similar topic only for you Order Now Types of newspaper advertising There are two types of newspaper advertising – display and classified. A display advertisement is a written message, often accompanied by an illustration or photograph, which can be placed in any section of the newspaper. A classified ad refers to those advertisements that are separated into specific classifications and located in one or more sections of the newspaper. Display advertisements There are two types of display ads found in the newspaper – national and local. National advertising usually refers to products that are promoted on a nation-wide basis, such as automobiles and brand-name products or retail chains. Local advertising is used to promote local, regional or national products. The ad is written, however, to appear in the local market. When placing a display ad, the advertiser is charged by the amount of space the ad occupies in the newspaper. The price of the space varies with certain factors: †¢Newspaper circulation (the larger the circulation the higher the price charged) †¢Size of ad †¢Use of colour †¢Guaranteed position in newspaper †¢Day the advertisement runs †¢Advertising frequency To attract a reader’s attention and to sell a product, many techniques are used in the creation of a display ad. As a result, these ads are usually professionally prepared in creative services departments of the newspaper, the advertiser or a contracted advertising agency. The physical appearance of an advertisement often determines its attractiveness to the reader. Some aspects considered in ad preparation are: †¢Size of the ad †¢Use of colour †¢Amount of white space, i. e. , not too crowded †¢Graphics chosen †¢Type style and size of text The information included in an ad can definitely influence its effectiveness in selling a product. Some display ads are purely factual and appeal to reason. Information in these ads usually relates to: †¢Quality of the product †¢Price or value of the product †¢General description of the product Guarantee of the product Other display ads appeal to the emotions of the consumer and may emphasise: †¢Brand loyalty – the advertiser wants you to identify with and continue buying established brands. †¢Conformity – the â€Å"everybody is buying this particular brand or item† approach. †¢Hero worship – endorsement of a product by a personality i n entertainment or sports. †¢Status – an appeal to the buyer’s ego. †¢Humour – entertaining, but deceptive; says little about the product. †¢Personal attractiveness – a wishful-thinking ad appealing to a particular feminine/masculine image. Style changes – the buyer is asked to keep up with the times. †¢Vanity – this kind of ad appeals to the buyer’s self image or ego-gratification where the buyer’s happiness comes first. †¢Economy – everyone likes to think he or she can economise while spending. †¢Luxury – symbols of wealth and excess. †¢Convenience – work and time-saving devices. †¢Lifestyle – the advertisement associates a certain lifestyle with a product. †¢Security – this covers many kinds of security: emotional, personal, financial, etc. †¢Sex – the ad uses the lure of sex appeal. It is similar to the appeals of feminine and masculine attractiveness. Keep in mind that more than one appeal may be found in the same ad. Classified ads Classified ads are not written by creative service departments, but by individuals wishing to advertise goods and services available or needed. When placing a classified ad, advertisers are usually charged by the line. As a result, classified ads are brief. The price varies with the number of insertions desired and the particular days chosen. For example, the unit cost of an ad may decrease if it is run all week. On the other hand, a premium could be added to the cost if a high circulation day is chosen, such as Saturday. In some cities and towns different days are popular for certain types of ads. In your area, for example, Saturday may be a heavy real estate day, while Monday may be popular for car and truck ads. Placing a classified ad is very simple. One dials the classified advertising department of the newspaper and a trained operator assists in the placing of the ad. The operator will also help in the writing of the ad and in the selection of insertion dates. The process can also be done on-line. The classified ad section is organised to assist readers in locating relevant information. Many classified ad readers have specific goals in mind, rather than casual browsing. The classified ads – as their name implies – are grouped together according to product or service type. An overall index conveniently directs readers to each specific category, within which listings are arranged alphabetically. A newspaper is any printed periodical or work containing public news or comments on public news. Each newspaper tries to win the heart and loyalty of its readers through news and views, articles, pictures, poems, cartoons, editorials, presentation techniques and exclusive stories and news items. It censures the corrupt and the erring. It airs public grievances sad reflects public opinion through letters to the press. Napoleon feared four hostile newspapers more than a thousand bayonets. According to him â€Å"a newspaper is a grumbler, censurer, a giver of advice, a regent of sovereigns, a tutor of nations. ‘ Gopal Krishna Gokhale considered the newspapers to be the rousers and the sentinels of the voice of people. In India newspapers have a vital role to play and an important duty to perform, both as ‘vox populi’ (voice of the people) and as builder of public opinion. In this sense, it is the ‘people’s university’—book, pulpit, platform, forum, theatre and counselor, all in one. There is no interest—literary, social, politi cal, religious, commercial, economic, scientific, technological, agricultural, mechanical, cultural, histrionic and so on and so forth—which is not covered â€Å"by the news-paper. There, a vast majority of the people in this country are still illiterate or at least unenlightened, even among the literate persons, about two-thirds do not read newspaper regularly. The Indian masses lack intellectual capacity and comprehension required in reading a newspaper. Approximately 17 percent of people read newspapers and out these dot even half of the people read editorials, comments or serious initial articles. The rest content themselves by reading the headlines or the topical news. Young men read sports news and film reviews, the businessmen confine themselves to market reports about shares, stocks and the prices of gold, silver and essential commodi ¬ties. Only old, retired people pour over the newspaper from end to end, and that too because they have no other pastime to pass time. This shows that the number of those who have genuine interest in newspapers is very low. But it is these people—national and state leaders, teachers, lawyers, philosophers, academicians, technocrats and bureaucrats—who form the intellectual and intelligent section of the Indian society. They speak for the common people and voice their grievances against mismanagement of public affairs. They serve as a link between the rulers and the rated, the government and the people and complete the chain of action and reaction. The newspapers in India perform their pole as guardians of the public interest, watch-dogs and a source of all kinds of informa ¬tion. They are not State-controlled, as in U. S. S. R. and Pakistan, they enjoy freedom of expression. Of course, they must function within the bounds of law. They must not infringe the law regarding libel and deformation, otherwise they would be liable to penal action. Even the restricted freedom of the Indian newspapers it the envy of the journalists in other countries of Asia where there has been a prolonged spell of military dictatorship, autocratic rule or emergency. In India, the newspapers keep a powerful check on the mis ¬deeds, the tyranny and this, corrupt practices of the government. Thomas Jefferson paid rich tributes to this function of the newspaper when he said, â€Å"Were it left to me to decide whether we should have a government without newspapers, or newspapers without a government, I should not hesitate a moment to prefer the latter. However, all newspapers do not play a positive end construc ¬tive role expected of them. There is a section of newspapers in India, which indulges in blackmail, extortion of money and distor ¬tion of facts and news. This yellow journalism is despicable. Such newspapers violate all ethical standards and adopt a purely merce ¬nary and anti-national attitude. This is sub-standard and base Journ alism. They should be treated like smugglers, black-marketers and drug-pedlars and antisocial elements and should be dealt with an iron-hand. What Jefferson said about newspapers in America applies to newspapers in India also. ‘I Chapter, truth; II Chapter, probabilities; third, possibilities; fourth, lies; fifth, blatant lies; and the first chapter is the shortest,† Most of the country’s leading newspapers are owned or domi ¬nated by big industrial houses and capitalists—Birja, Dalmia, Express group, As a result, the interests of the general public are often sacri ¬ficed at the altar of capitalism and business interests. Moreover, the lion’s share of the total circulation of newspapers, a little above 5crore, belongs to the bigger dailies published from Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta and Madras, the metropolitan towns. The national dailies enjoy a great deal of influence and command huge resources. But the smaller newspapers, that are published in the regional languages and that have a smaller circulation, have to face perpetual financial crisis and are often forced to close down. This belies the Govern ¬ment policy of patronizing smaller newspapers and imposing rest ¬raints in bigger newspapers. In several countries abroad, especially in the West, newspapers have power to make and break governments; but in India news ¬papers do not carry much weight and do not cut much ice. The Government does not pay much heed to their views and does not respond to their criticism for the simple reason that it commands a colossal majority in the Parliament. Gloating over absolute majority, the Government even tries to shifle free press (as has several times been done in the case of the Indian Express group of papers). One common method of pressurising newspapers that the Central or State Governments in India adopt is to stop giving adver ¬tisements and notifications released by the Directorate of Advertising and Visual Publicity (D. A. V. P. , Government departments and public sector enterprises; to such newspapers as do not cringe and adopt a fawning attitude and thus made them suffer financially. Advertisements are sometimes used as a weapon to corapell complia ¬nce, for it would be impossible for a newspaper to survive without advertisements, the prop and the life-blood of all journalism. A num ¬ber of such cases have been taken up in the Press Council of Indi a and have been commented upon. Another method is that of stopp ¬ing or substantially cutting down the supply of newsprint paper quota to such ‘dare-devil’ newspapers. Newspapers in this renaissance country should regard their pro ¬fession as a noble mission of educating and enlightening people. They should impose certain moral and national restraints and discipline upon themselves. They should refrain from indulging Its rumors and turning out biased information and distorted truths from ulte ¬rior motives. As purveyors of news and views, they should play the rote of ‘people’s university’ and serve the motherland as guardians and custodians of people’s liberty. How to cite Role of Advertising in Newspapers, Essay examples

Variation Orders In Highway Project In Sultanate Of Oman - Samples

Question: Discuss about Variation Orders In Highway Project In Sultanate Of Oman. Answer: Introduction Oman is a GCC country that has been part of a high growth especially in the construction sector plus a fast growth in the population. There is large group of young people coming in hence higher demand usually for housing plus other building start-ups at Muscat the capital city bringing in a tourism appeal, there are other construction sectors involving the industrial plus the transport at Sohar, Salalah plus Duqm sites also are the development of seaports and airports, the utilities, does do reconstruct the governmental buildings, some of the landmarks projects. As the saying goes where there are advantages, there are disadvantages too hence the construction project at Oman does do have its challenges (Ramady, 2014). The variations that are usually issued that is during construction happens to be time-consuming plus are also costly hence being causes of disruption, of delay, of disputes plus does do generate a cost effect and this gets worse for there is no method available for controlling this. The contracting that is performed in Oman is connected to the construction-type projects instead of the services together with the supplies contracts. Often some changes do occur that is during contract execution usually regarding the scope changes, some of the variations that are in quantities, the changes that are in design, the extension of time plus the unit rate changes. The Omans most used standard construction contract is The Standard Documents for Building Civil Engineering (Choi, 2004). The article 51 usually entitled Alterations, the additions plus the omissions, gives that variations that is to the original area usually of works are often permissible as; Engineer must make variations of the quality or rather the quantity of Works or rather any area approved by the Employer hence order the Contractor to acting by; raising or rather lowering the amount of any task , to making a difference in the trait or rather the quality, to omitting any job, to making a difference in the levels, the lines set themselves together with the dimensions and finally to running the added work. Some more issues will most certainly arise as a consequence of any variations to the original scope of works. Such issues will likely manifest in both lump-sum and cost-reimbursement contracts and will need to be quickly redressed to circumvent any future disputes. Some common problems that will likely arise include reimbursement for supplies in which the contractor had previously purchased in anticipation for individual works; future modifications to monthly payment terms and interim certificates; time extensions as they relate to variation claims; the amount of retention money; and adjustments to the original contract value (Sanderson, 2006). What to find out when assessing the differences usually in this construction projects is one the causes of variations, their impact that is on the project, the identifying of the beneficial groups. The tasks included the presentation of actual case studies and preparation of a questionnaire. The causes of variations are requesting for extra job or rather changes because of new findings plus some other considerations, the owner making some requests for modification of work, unclearly of scope requirements at design stage, the failure to making decisions when required, the non-availability that is of the field construction site engineers , a poor communication that is in between the relevant governmental units plus the owner, the non-availability usually of the previous completed project records, the failing to giving the right information to tender documents, the non-anticipation of the designs natural growth, design periods that are usually not realistic, the scarcity of the engineer ing registration that is for the engineers in Oman so as to ensuring excellent consultancy services is well maintained, the shortage of usually of the whole project planning, the building schedule is not real including the conditions often for building are old plus usually do not match the activities of development already present. So as to determine the impacts of variation construction in Oman they had to one, delay the completion date, the cost had to overruns, the contractors had to incur other expenses, the claims plus disputes then the owner, the designer/consultant, the contractor did get advantaged that is from the giving of the variations that is to the contract (Chartered Institute of building Great Britain, 2014) The recommendations is by the setting of activities so as to minimize the changes in building in Oman such as a standard document usually should be developed so as to develop the stages from the start of the project till end, while a permanent standard document should be designed so as to covering all the construction regulations then permitting the required that is for projects usually built in Oman, a quantity surveyor together with the project manager should work with large built projects plus a conventional learning database system should be constructed and distributed among the governmental units, the technical committee establishment so as to reviewing the overall plan and finally reviewing of the registration that is the consulting companies plus allowing the design engineer to practice without professional license. Challenges There are the economic problems that are the additional cost and the incremental time. There are the capacity or rather the professional challenges such as the insufficiency of knowledge that is on green technologies together with material, the limited availability that is the green suppliers plus the information, limitation of quantitative evaluation tools, insufficiency of the construction codes plus the changes plus the limitation of professional capacity (Konar, 2011). There are the societal challenges too that do include the inadequacy of the political incentives, the refusal to change the traditional building processes and the limitation of public awareness. The technological issues are like the lack of sustainable technologies workability, the misunderstanding of the technical activities plus the restriction of enough green technological specifications. Parties in projects in Oman are the project owner or maker, the employers engineering, the architectural and other consultants, the employers contractor, the contractors subcontractors plus the suppliers (Konar, 2011). The Delay Causes In Construction Plans According to Keane Caletka, (2015) the design delays, the changes possible in the initial layout, the complexity, the construction delay, the variations plus the claims, the change of scope, the financial ability, the insufficiency of funds, the unavailability of themanagement team, unspecialized subcontractors, limitation of project management, restriction of experience of the consultant, inadequacy of knowledge of that is by the contractors Literature Review The construction of office complex Objective Staying within a reasonable budget, development of the car parks meant for the staffs plus the public users, the building of a multi-storey building so as to accommodate 750 workers, the providence of comfortable plus a fast communication together with IT services that is for the public, the maintenance of security service there and the construction of the consensus in between the requirements plus the minor essentials (Orstavik, Dainty Abbott, 2015). There are some of the criteria that are desired like the materials selected that is to a high standard, construction of external view that is to be Oman's building styles, design fitting traits widening and private service roads to be as per Royal Oman Police standards plus the classifications. The construction of Container Terminal Objectives The building of a container terminal, building of breakwater system, giving a comfortable plus a fast services for usually the vessels, bringing up of the existing services, the construction of berths so as increasing the terminal cargo capacity, being within a reasonable budget, the making of consensus that is in between the already there services plus the services that are in the list of requirement. The construction of road Objective The building of 6 km of internal road network for the purpose of connecting the internal central blocks plus the expressway highway, the substantial earthworks, the construction of the roundabouts, the guard rails, the traffic signs, the installing of the street lighting that is for six km road length plus the ticking done on the roads, the building of Ripraps that is along the path slopes, fixing of pipes plus the box culverts plus the construction of parking areas together with the substations of the power so as to offering power of the road services The Fast Ferry Service Project Involves the building of the fast ferry service equipment usually at the north area of Oman with the activities there being the construction of berthing facilities, of bridges that are linked, of the pontoons, of the mooring piles, of the building of water plus the sewage networks, the construction of custom plus the immigrant buildings, rearrangement of wastewater. The stages involved feasibility stage, the concept plus design stage, the young stages plus the building plus the maintenance stage (Rickman, 2008). Others Case Studies Khalid 2012, an MSc. Thesis was done for taking controls of the variation orders usually in water plus the wastewater projects in Jordan with the main effect being conflict in between the contact forms, the mistakes plus those left out in the design, to unforeseen issues, to the project place conditions differences, to the insufficiency model , to the differences that is in specifications, in the inadequate working drawings, the change that is in design that is by consultant, effects of the variation orders be completion time plan delay, more of project cost , more in the overhead cost, more payments for procurement delay plus the contractors. Priyantha et al., (2011) shown that the highways aids in the economic growth of the upcoming countries. Variations here is one of the issues that does do arise because of unclear scopes that is of the tasks defined at the beginning. Its primary objective was for recognizing, the causes plus the impacts that are of variations usually in highways construction. Lanka which was just a survey, a questionnaire survey targeting on finding out the causes of variations plus the semi-structured interviews carried out with getting data about nature plus the impacts of the changes. The outcome was the change in demand does do rise plus the mind power being reasons for an owner with the faults together with the layout differences in Bill of Quantities being for consultant originated variations (Woolley, 2001). Ming Sun (2009) let the cat out of the bag that on many building projects, the regular differences did land into cost overruns, to time delays, to quality faults. To fill the knowledge gap then reviewing plus synthesizing the already literature that is on project difference did causes plus the impacts, the coming up of two taxonomies for difference causes plus the difference effects and finally the illustration of how the taxonomies were being used. Arain and Peng (2005), explained on the coming up of the Knowledge Based Decision Support System (KBDSS) meant formanagement that is of variation orders for the institutional buildings that are in Singapore. KBDSS got two primary parts, a knowledgebase matched with the decision support shell that is for choosing the appropriate controls. So as to come up with the database then the accumulation of information that is from usually the source documents of 79 institutional construction projects, the questionnaire survey, the literature review. KBDSS does do exhibits their pertinent details plus as variations, the assortment of filtered knowledge. Sambasivan Soon (2005) said that the problem of delays usually within the construction industry is a worldwide phenomenon with the construction industry in Malaysia being included. The important objective is to finding out the delay variables effect that is on the job conclusion. According to the study were the following factors causing delay, the contractors improper preparation, the contractor's site mismanagement, insufficiency of the contractor expertise, the inadequacy of the owner's financing plus the payments that is for the finished work, the challenges that is with subcontractors plus an empirical relationship in between each cause plus impact. A. Koushki et al., (2005) carried out the delays plus cost rise usually in the construction that is of private residential projects that are in Kuwait, in the time-delays plus the cost increases often associated with the construction of private housing projects that is in the State of Kuwait were determined. Major projects Sakhel, Geissen, Vogelpohl, (2017) Oman Convention Exhibition Centre is one of the projects that accumulated US$1 billion, with the approximation end date being in 2016. Two was the Sohar Airport costing US$500 million, with an estimate end date being 2014. Three is the Salalah Port expansion that cost was US$450 million. Four was the Omans national rail network whose value is not defined till now, but the targeted end date is 2018. Five is the Duqm city, the drydocks plus the refinery whose cost is US$20 billion. Six is the Ghubrah Independent Water Project whose cost is US$380 million with the end date approximation being 2014. Seven is the Batinah Expressway whose cost is US$2.59 billion. Eight is the Muscat Salalah International Airport expansion whose cost is US$5.2 billion and finally is the Salalah Medical City with a cost of US$1 billion. Methodology The source of the data that was required was collected from the clients plus the consultantsrecords to show each activity carried out. The forms of data collection were usually designed by authors so as to unify the data collection that is for all delay. The indices for delay used for comparison involved the percentage of delay, the percentage of delay plus the average delay rate (Biddle Emmett, 2013) The secondary sources were the most used ones. I have studied the plans for the Oman construction from the booklets, the publications issued by this Ministry of development time to time about the topic plus from books, from newspapers, from magazine together with the internet. Also a good review on thirty-eight public building projects usually on non-similar project kinds together with the sizes that is plus the residential, the offices plus the infrastructure and the service projects with the aim of investigating the cost overrun status (Hamilton, 2005). Conclusions Construction is a labor-intensive industry making labor productivity to remain the industry's predominant identifier of performance. Amongst the biggest challenges facing the construction sector in the Sultanate of Oman is usually the low labor productivity hence if identification, exploration plus the ranking making is the goal. Issues that are caused by the delay usually incompletion that is of construction projects generally in Oman got to be diagnosed and assessed hence to conclusion that; the delay in building the projects in Oman between the 2007-2009 is greater than 40 percent that is usually the planned time, and according to this percentage it shows a high rate. The owners minding about the delay generally in the construction projects does do build up capabilities of studying their plans in each given stage. The maximum delay between 2007-2009 was found to be 300 per cent hence need for studying the planning plus the efficiency of the right building forums. References Abell, R. (1983). Economics of staged construction of flexible road pavements. Crowthorne, Berkshire, Transport and Road Research Laboratory. Al Kaaf, K. A. (2014). Transferability and calibration of the highway safety manual performance functions and development of new models for urban four-lane divided roads. Orlando, Fla, University of Central Florida. Australia. (1996). Employment effects of road construction. Canberra, Bureau of Transport and Communications Economics. Biddle, J. E., Emmett, R. B. (2013). Reserach in the history of economic thought and methodology: a research annual. Chartered Institute of building (Great Britain). (2014). Code of practice for project management for construction and development. Choi, Y.-K. (2004). Principles of applied civil engineering design. Reston, VA, American Society of Civil Engineers. Ei-Shirbeeny, E., Bakka, M. (2003). Experimental pilot project for automating street lighting system in Abu Dhabi using powerline communications. 2, 743-746 Vol.2. Gerwick, B. C. (1993). Construction of prestressed concrete structures. New York, Wiley. Gonzalez P., Gonzalez V., Molenaar K., Orozco F. (2014). Analysis of causes of delay and time performance in construction projects. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management. 140. Hamilton, J. (2005). Primary and secondary sources. Edina, Minn, ABDO Pub. Hoshiyama, Y. (2006). Construction of a deep-water earthquake-resistant container terminal by the jacket method. On Course : P.I.A.N.C. Magazine A.I.P.C.N. 37-44. Ibrahim Mahamid, A. Al-Ghonamy, M. Aichouni. (2015). Risk Matrix for Delay Causes in Construction Projects in Saudi Arabia. Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology. 9, 666-671. International Conference of Green Building Materials and Energy-Saving Construction, DU, Z., Wang, Z. (2011). Green building materials and energy-saving construction: selected, peer reviewed papers from the 2011 International Conference of Green Building Materials and Energy-saving Construction (GBMEC 2011) will be held on August 6, 2011 in Harbin, China. Durnten-Zurich, Switzerland, Trans Tech. Keane, P. J., Caletka, A. F. (2015). Delay Analysis in Construction Contracts. Hoboken, Wiley. Konar, B. (2011). Critical evaluation and thermodynamic optimization of the iron-rare-earth systems. Montreal, McGill University Libraries. Oman. (1977). Loan agreement (highway maintenance project) between Sultanate of Oman and International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. [Washington, D.C.], [World Bank]. Orozco, F., Gonza?lez, P., Molenaar, K., Gonza?lez, V. (2014). Analysis of Causes of Delay and Time Performance in Construction Projects. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management. 140. Orstavik, F., Dainty, A. R. J., Abbott, C. (2015). Construction Innovation. Hoboken, Wiley Ramady, M. A. (2014). Political, Economic and Financial Country Risk: Analysis of the Gulf Cooperation Council. Rickman, S. B. (2008). Nancy Love and the WASP ferry pilots of World War II. Denton, Tex, University of North Texas Press. Sakhel, S. R., Geissen, S.-U., Vogelpohl, A. (2017). Virtual industrial water usage and wastewater generation in the Middle East and North Africa 2011-2015. Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration. 2, 1-18. Sanderson, C. J. (2006). Analytical models for decision making. Maidenhead, Open University Press. S?Elih, J., Srdic?, A. (2006). Time and cause delay analysis in construction projects. Me?unarodna Konferencija 2006 Savremeni Problemi U Gra?evinarstvu. Trankell, I.-B. (1999). On the road in Laos: an anthropological study of road construction and rural communities. Bangkok, White Lotus Press, Uppsala University. United States, Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District. (1974). Larkspur Ferry Terminal supplemental no. 1 to final environmental statement, the Golden Gate ferry and bus service project. [Place of publication not identified], Urban Mass Transportation Administration. Virine, L., Trumper, M. (2015). Predicting the unpredictable: how to analyze project risks using event chain methodology. PM Network. 29. Wisconsin. (1977). Proposed project to rehabilitate the Arthur K. Atkinson Car Ferry and improve cross Lake Michigan car ferry service. Madison, Wis, The Division. Woolley, R. D. D. (2001). Find your way around JCT 98: private with quantities. London, Spon Press. World Bank. (1985). Report and recommendation of the president of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development to the executive directors on a proposed loan in the amount equivalent to US$3.0 million to the Sultanate of Oman for a third highway maintenance project. [Washington], World Bank. World Bank. (1985). Staff appraisal report: Sultanate of Oman : a highway maintenance project. [Washington], World Bank.

Brazil free essay sample

# 8217 ; s Current Film Industry Essay, Research Paper In this paper I will discourse Brazil and it? s current movie industry. I will clarify its function in the Brazilian economic system, and besides what portion the authorities trades in the industry itself. Certain Brazilian movies will be given as representations towards my theories. Within a twelvemonth of the Lumiere brother? s ? first experiment? in Paris in 1896, the cinematograph machine appeared in Rio de Janeiro. Ten old ages subsequently, the capital boasted 22 film houses and the first Brazilian characteristic movie, The Stranglers by Antonio Leal, had been screened. From so on Brazil? s movie industry made uninterrupted advancement and, although it has neer been big, its end product over the old ages has attracted international attending. In 1930, still the epoch of the soundless film in Brazil, Mario Peixoto? s movie, Limite was made. Limite is a phantasmagoric work covering with the struggles raised by the human status and how life conspires to forestall entire fulfilment. We will write a custom essay sample on Brazil or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page It was considered a landmark movie in the Brazilian film history. In 1933 Cinedia produced The Voice of Carnival, the first movie with Carmen Miranda. This movie ushered in the ? chanchada? which dominated Brazilian film for many old ages. Chanchada? s were the slapstick comedies, by and large filled with musical Numberss and exhaustively cherished by the populace. By the terminal of the 1940? s Brazilian movie devising was going an industry. The Vera Cruz Film Company was created in Sao Paulo with the end of bring forthing movies of international quality. It hired technicians from abroad and brought back from Europe, Alberto Cavalcanti, a Brazilian film maker with an international repute to head the company. Vera Cruz produced some of import movies before it closed in 1954, among them the heroic poem O Cangaceiro which won the? Best Adventure Film? award at Cannes Film Festival in 1953. In the 1950? s, Brazilian film radically changed the manner it made movies. In his 1995 movie, Rio 40 Graus, manager Nelson Pereira Department of State Santos employed the filmmaking techniques of Italian non pragmatism by utilizing ordinary people as his histrions and by traveling to the streets to hit his low budget movie. He would go one of the most of import Brazilian film makers of all clip, and it is he who set the phase for the Brazilian? film novo? ( an thought in head and a camera in the custodies ) motion. By 1962? film novo? had established a new construct in Brazilian filmmaking. The? film novo? movie? s dealt with subjects related to acute national jobs, from struggles in rural countries to human jobs in the big metropoliss, every bit good as movie versions of of import Brazilian novels. At the terminal of the 1960? s, the Tropicalist motion had taken clasp of the art scenes in Brazil which meant that film came under its enchantment. It emphasized the demand to transform all foreign influences into a national merchandise. The most representative movie of this motion was Macunaima, by Joaquim Pedro de Andrade. It was a metaphorical analysis of the Brazilian character as shown in the narrative of a native Indian who leaves the Amazon jungle and goes to the large metropolis. Working at the same clip as the Tropicalists were the? film marginal? motion. This was another group of managers that emerged in Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro who besides made low cost movies. This group produced movie? s with subject? s that referred to a fringy society. Their movies were considered? hard? . In 1969 the authorities movie bureau, Embrafilme, was created. They were responsible for the carbon monoxide production, funding, and distribution of a big per centum of movies in the 1970? s and 1980? s.Embrafilme added a commercial dimension to the movie industry and made it possible for it to travel on to more ambitious undertakings. In the 1980? s films were non good attended. This was due in portion to the popularity of the telecasting. Many theaters closed their doors, particularly in the inside if the state. Never the less some of import movies were made. Many were concerned with political inquiries. Today many modern-day Brazilian movies are being shown on telecasting and in film theaters all over the universe. The Brazilian civilization at the minute is a consequence of a historical procedure where there was a convergence of three distinguishable populations. The Indian population that was situated in the land before the Portuguese arrived in 1500, the Africans who were brought by the slave proprietors, and in conclusion the immigrants that came to Brazil in the beginning of the nineteenth century. Today, Brazil being more witting of the profusion of these three different civilizations attempts to incentive the movie industry by conveying these influences out. A perfect illustration of this is the movie O Quatrilho. O Quatrilho, made in 1996, was one of the five campaigners for the 1996 Academy Award for the Best Movie in a Foreign Language. This movie takes us into the universe of a little settlement of Italian Immigrants in the South of Brazil in 1910. The immature and serious Angelo is wed to the beautiful and vivacious Teresa but he pays no attending to her at all. He is foremost preoccupied with doing terminals meet and so his luck instead than showering on his married woman. Another twosome arrives at the small town where Angelo and Teresa are located. Pierina, Teresa? s cousin, is homely but difficult working while Massimo is more worldly and doesn? T vitamin D isguise the fact that he finds Teresa attractive. Before long both twosomes have kids and they find themselves sharing the same belongings. The day-to-day modus operandi of working together on the land is backbreaking but while Angelo busies himself with his concern and proves successful at it, Massimo and Teresa are drawn to each other. After their first amative brush they decide to abandon their several matrimonies and run off together. The staying twosome, betrayed by their partners, continue to populate under the same roof, despite church force per unit area that they separate. But small by small they discover that they are in love. As a consequence of the procedure of the state? s formation, Brazil has a rich influence for different clip periods and ethnicity? s which can clearly be seen in the aforesaid movie, O Quatrilho. With a sudden alteration of Brazilian cultural Torahs in the last 2 old ages, the Brazilian? audio-visual? country? s such as movie, telecasting, and wireless flourished. The national production of movies were stagnant from the 1990? s to 1992 due to the extremist cuts in authorities financial and artistic inducements made at the clip by the Collor disposal. But because of the new demand for more? audio-visual? merchandises in 1993 that all changed. In 1993 when the jurisprudence to incentive the? audio-visual? was created and so passed by the senate, 2 movies were produced. A twelvemonth subsequently, 1994, 5 movies were made. In 1995 17 movies were produced, traveling along in 1996 22 movies were made. And in conclusion in 1997 30 movies were produced. This addition gives us the decision that with the constitution of the new jurisprudence there was a growing of national movies. With this growing the outgrowth of beautiful cinematography began. A great illustration of the growing of national movie? s is Central do Brazil, which won the gold bear at the International Film Festival in Berlin and the award for Best Script at the Sundance Festival. In this movie Dora works in the? Central do Brazil? composing letters for nonreaders who desire to match with their distant relations. Ana, one of her clients, dies by acquiring hit by a auto, and against her wants, Dora receives Ana? s merely child Josue. Josue dreams to cognize his male parent who has disappeared in the nor-east and so he begs Dora to assist. Dora, in the terminal helps Josue to compose letters to assist happen his male parent. This movie is presently being shown in Brazilian theaters and besides European and American theaters. The existent flourishing of the movie industry is so intense that one can even mensurate by the fact that in the beginning of the decennary the figure of witnesss for the Brazilian movies were undistinguished, citing up to about 20,000 per twelvemonth. But bit by bit, as the movies increased so did the witnesss. In 1997 1 can see how the Numberss have jumped to 2 million. Another auspicious fact is the regional variegation of productions, leting the riddance of the conflicts between Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo. Although the market is still dominated by foreign movies, Brazil has begun to export their movie? s. In 1997 Brazil imported 680 1000000s of dollars against the 38 1000000s that were being exported. The Federal Constitution clearly established in the 2 articles ( 215, and 216 ) provinces that the competence of the province warrant? s the cultural rights. Besides entree to the cultural beginning, value and incentivation of the cultural productions and savings of the national heritage. Particularly the 1s from the assorted cultural groups and tendencies that encompass the Brazilian society. So the 3 cardinal dimensions of the cultural phenomenon ( creative activity, diffusion, and saving ) are contemplated in the constitutional text. This places them under the populace duties in coaction with its society. The state? s cultural country is altering to a more stable construction of organisation and fiscal support. The federal statute law that incentives the civilization has 2 powerful Torahs. Law 8.313/91, which is the federal jurisprudence to excite the civilization, and jurisprudence 8685/93 which is the audiovisual jurisprudence. With these two Torahs the federal authorities inducements and supports the houses to lend with a per centum of the revenue enhancements to be used in the support of the humanistic disciplines. As a consequence of these Torahs we have the ? Revival of the Brazilian Movie? , with an increased income of 80 million ? reais? ( Brazillian currency ) in 1997. These figures are four times bigger than the 1995 figures. An illustration of this is the ministry of civilization that gave 40 awards for movie trunkss, 15 for books, and 15 for the development of the? audio-visual? undertakings. In 1998, the ministry of civilization will focus on its attempts to increase the market for Brazilian productions of audio ocular context. By making so, one hopes that this can increase the construction and the execution of the audio ocular industry in Brazil. In decision, I believe that the Brazilian movie industry was missing when it foremost started. Gradually the industry has begun to turn and bring forth movies that are even entertaining foreign audiences, such as O Quatrilho in Europe and the US. Hopefully as the old ages base on balls I believe that even though Brazil is a 3rd universe state, it is rich plenty in civilization to convey forth a different quality of movies that will reassure the foreign audience and market to give them a opportunity.

Alcohol Short Essays

Alcohol Short Essays Alcohol Short Essay Alcohol Short Essay Alcohol and heavy drinking throughout Canada plays a distinctive role in instigating other key addictions. Drinking and consumption abuse can be linked strongly to the abuse of illicit drugs. Binge drinking should be seen as a gateway or portal to the development of poly-drug users. As the gateway drug theory suggests, routine use of less harmful drugs, in this case alcohol, will lead to risk of abusing more serious drugs. Alcohol is so readily available and like any other psychoactive drug it can be very addictive.More than 600,000 Canadians are dependent on alcohol, and nearly 200,000, on illicit drugs. Alcohol consumption needs to be portrayed as a more dangerous activity. The possible risk factors in alcohol consumption can be addiction or abuse to other more harmful substances, and even overdose or death. There is an abundance of alcoholism and substance abuse on Canadian university campuses. Increasing evidence from studies show that casual drinking is no longer the norm. The standard in partying’ has transferred from casual drinking to binge drinking.Binge drinking is heavy dosage. it ruins family relationship and future of many teens. For every family that is impacted by drugs, there are another 10 to 15 families impacted by alcohol abuse. Its a pretty big deal. We have a tendency to only look at part of the puzzle. (Kevin Lewis). As a society we tend to categorize the severity of addiction in a way that drugs are the most dangerous and alcohol being just a problem. Because alcohol addiction can be a slow progressive disease many people don’t see it in the same light as drug addiction.An addiction to drugs is seen as being a more deadly and dangerous issue then that of alcohol because a drug addiction can happen more quickly and can kill more quickly. Alcohol is something that is easy to obtain, something that is found at almost every restaurant. People with an alcohol addiction can not hide from alcohol as easy as a drug addict. Approximately 7 million Americans suffer from alcohol abuse and another 7 million suffer from alcoholism.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of the current jury system Essay

What are the advantages and disadvantages of the current jury system in the UK - Essay Example D submitted copies of these documents to an MP from the opposition camp so that the issue could be raised in parliament. D was charged in accordance with the Official Secrets Act. Despite the clear knowledge that D’s actions amounted to an offense, he was acquitted by the jury1. The case above presents convincing evidence that the jury system acts as a counter balance to politically motivated and other improper prosecutions. Although they do not reveal their reasons for acquitting or convicting, juries provide certainty of their actions and this increases public confidence. Juries can also act on their conscience in addition to relying on evidence. This has the advantage of delivering justice even where confident witnesses present biased evidence. Despite these advantages, the jury system as applied in the UK has several disadvantages. First, the jury system increases the costs incurred by courts. The group of jurors handling the case must be paid as well as the pool of jurors from which the jury has been selected. In addition, other court personnel are employed for the purposes of ministering to the jury during all stages of the case. Furthermore, the making of a verdict by one judge alone costs about  £1,000 per day while a jury’s verdict costs about  £7,400 per day, which is significantly more expensive. There is evidence of perverse verdicts in the UK jury system. This is where juries make decisions that are outright against the law. One case in point in relation to this is R v Owen. In this case, it was established that D fired a sawn off a gun at T because T had killed his son through careless driving. T had been sentenced to serve a term of 12 months. D felt this was not enough, the reason for his action. D was tried for intentional malicious wounding and attempted murder. However, he was acquitted by Maidstone

Gender Roles and its Effect Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Gender Roles and its Effect - Essay Example The gender roles as defined by society therefore fail to pay attention to such groups who identify themselves as intersexual and transgender. Intersexual are individuals having male/female anatomical characteristics that deviate from the normal while transgender are those that identify with or express their gender identity through a gender that does not correspond to the sex at birth. In a society where a lot focus is placed on this gender binary, these individuals with characteristics that do not neatly fit the clear-cut male/female dichotomy face similar problems as socially constructed gender roles fail to accommodate them. Perceptions and judgments people hold about others are generally informed by social norms, which consequently leads to them gravitating to individuals that are least hostile to a society’s norms. To perceive and understand reality, people rely on senses, intellect and generally, held social constructs which makes them able to label certain objects and co ncepts. For example, a man is differentiated from a woman according to gender roles and behaviors that have been assigned to genders and are expected of them. Individuals who posses’ characteristics and behaviors regarded as ‘masculine’ by the society are identified as man, and vice versa. There is a complexity when individuals who do not identify themselves within the constraints of this gender binary fail to fit into the male/female duality. In her article, Judith Butler explains that through intelligibility, humans are able to recognize other humans based on â€Å"normal† human social and physical characteristics that are defined by the society. ... at a definable gender is necessary for understanding someone to be human, people hold dominant gender perceptions, which dictate that intersexed persons must conform to either male or female gender roles. Butler rather subverts gender roles, as she asserts that â€Å"justice is not only or exclusively a matter of how persons are treated or how societies are constituted. It also concerns consequential decisions about what a person is, and what social norms must be honored and expressed for ‘personhood’ to become allocated† (Butler, 58). She goes out of the norm to define justice not in terms of law but as the capacity to overlook the social norms that define an individual’s self-worth. According to her, justice is defined by the decisions held by a particular society in defining what it considers ‘human’. These include the accepted appearance, characteristics and behaviors of an individual. Individuals who portray characteristics and behaviors t hat deviate from what the society considers as the ‘normal’, their identity is questioned. A quandary arises since perceptions held by a society are not flexible to change for accommodation of such individuals, rather it is expected of the individuals to readjust and conform to the predefined gender roles. Gender roles are acquired through socialization whereby a society trains individuals to conform and practice certain values and behaviors. Judith Lorber states that, â€Å"gender construction start with assignment to a sex category on the basis of what the genitalia look like at birth†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..a sex category becomes a gender status through naming dress and the use of other gender markers† when a child is born as sex is assigned to the child depending on the anatomical characteristics in particular the sex organs. As

The American Constitution Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

The American Constitution - Research Paper Example The Anti-Federalists, those opposed to the proposed constitution, included John Hancock, Samuel Adams, and Patrick Henry who also wrote a series of essays now referred to as the Anti-Federalist papers. They were fearful the will of the states would be dominated by the potential authority of centralized federal government. The Federalists attempted to reassure the doubters that they did not intend to create a governing system much like the tyrannical in British system which the colonists had just fought a protracted war to escape. The Anti-federalists ensured this stated intention by opposing the Constitution as written and insisting it contain further clarification of civil liberties by inserting the first ten Amendments, the Bill of Rights. The first ten amendments to the Constitution, the Bill of Rights were crafted as a compromise that was forged between the two differing viewpoints. The terminology describing these divergent viewpoints is somewhat misleading. The Anti-Federalists could actually be better described as federalists because they wanted the government to be a federation of independent states. Federalists would be better defined as Nationalists because they wanted an authoritative federal government. This paper examines the point of view of both Federalists and Anti-Federalists and the method by which they reached a compromise after two years of contentious debate and an explanation as to why one was ultimately the best choice. The Necessity of the Constitution The Federalist Papers expressed the limitations of the loosely associated union between the states that was present at the time as well as the benefits of uniting the states into an efficient central government. The Federalists were wealthy business and land owners who believed that a powerful centralized federal government governed by influential, learned persons would promote commerce which was both to their and the country’s benefit. John Jay specified this reason first over all other motives to unite the states by ratifying a constitution in the second of the Federalist Papers, â€Å"It has until lately been a received and uncontradicted opinion that the prosperity of the people of America depended on their continuing firmly united, and the wishes, prayers, and efforts of our best and wisest citizens have been constantly directed to that object† (Jay, 1787: Fed. #2). The Federalists’ interests were positioned principally in a robust economy which they argued would contribute to the security and prosperity of all citizens. It is probable that at least part of their motivation to create a strong federal government was their own economic interest. Essentially, the Papers defended the idea of republicanism within the Constitution. In addition to financial advantages, the Federalists made a persuasive case for the forming of a powerful federal government by emphasizing the necessity for securing and preserving the lives, liberty and property of th e new nation’s citizens. By combining interests and resources, the military and economic weaknesses of the loosely allied states would be significantly strengthened which would act to safeguard the entire country from both internal and external dissension. The nation as a whole would become less susceptible from a

Effect of Peers and Gender on Risk Taking Decisions

Effect of Peers and Gender on Risk Taking Decisions The Effect of Peers and Gender on Risk Taking Decisions on Breaking the Rules of College Students Frances Mae H. Balandan Jaymie Aileen T. Huang Patricia Audrey D. Lansang Louie Belle M. Regente Dorothy Joy S. Sy Abstract Keywords: peers, genders, rules, risk-taking The researchers would like to know if clustering and gender affects the decision making of college students that involves risk. Clustering refers to the participants in whether they are classified in a group of friends or acting alone in a situation on making a risky behavior. The typical finding is that, on the average, subjects (group) shift toward greater risk; that is, the group will most likely decide on the risky option than an individual deciding on his or her own. This is the prototype of the group-induced shift toward risk, or simply the risky shift (Clark, 1973). There are theories, such as the social comparison theory, that emphasizes that people with in a group decides differently than people in isolation (Levinger and Schneider, 1969). In terms of gender differences, male participants are more probable to engage in risky behaviors than female participants. In social decision making, males perceive less risk and are more likely to engage in greater risk. Boys’ risk judgments were signià ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ cantly predicted by their ratings of injury severity (Harris, C. R. Jenkins, H., 2006). Female participants are less probable to engage in risk behaviors in the domains of health, gambling and recreational activities. Females judge the activities as less enjoyable than males (Harris, C. R. Jenkins, H., 2006). In terms of group differences, examples would be that couples on average are risk-averse in their choices, and that risk preferences are less diverse across groups than across individuals. Groups are more risk-averse in lotteries with low probabilities of winning the largest payoffs, but less risk-averse when these probabilities are high (He, H., Martinson. P., Sutter, M., 2011). The gender is a determinant on risky behaviors. Generally, males take more risks. But in some cases, females tend to make riskier decisions. A study showed that males tend to make riskier decision in terms of finances while females take more social risks (Menon, 2011). Risk attitudes expressed by groups and individuals dià ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã¢â€š ¬er. In most choice problems involving a safe and a risky option groups tend to take more risk (â€Å"risky shifts†) (Stoner, 1960). Further studies have shown that men prefer their decisions to be implemented as decisions in the group, while women are less likely to so. Risk attitudes in the individual decision-making task have no significant effect on the females’ decision, but have a positive effect for males (Gurdal, M.Y., 2010). Other studies have also shown that adolescents are likely to do risky decision making as compared to adults, because they are prone to the influence of the peers and they tend to conform. They do not want to feel left out because they want to be part of the group, and adolescents are more easily convinced towards risky choices. This not applicable for adults, because they are more mature and self-reliant meaning they can do it independently without relying on the other’s help. (Gardner and Steinberg, 2005) The researchers would like to know the following: Does gender affect the risky decision making of an individual? Does clustering affect the risky decision making of an individual? In this research, the researchers generated four hypotheses: If a group of students are exposed to a risk-taking situation on breaking the rules, then the group consensus will be riskier than the average of the initial individual decisions. If an individual student is exposed to a risk-taking situation on breaking the rules, then s/he will take on a lower risk than the average of the group of students. If a male student is exposed to a risk-taking situation on breaking the rules, then he will take on a higher risk than female students whether be in group, pair or individual decision. If a female student is exposed to a risk-taking situation on breaking the rules, then he will take on a lower risk than male students whether be in group, pair or individual decision. The purpose of the study is to know if the inclusion of a person in a group would influence his/her making risky decisions and to know if the gender of a person matters in making risky decisions. This research will be a breakthrough for parents and counselors in dealing with their son/daughters and clients in terms of risk-taking decision making on breaking the rules. This research is specified to know how and when college students are more inclined to do riskier behaviors. This can help prevent the circumstances and unfortunate effects to take place. This research will also be helpful in terms of being a new discovery as it will be set in the Philippines. Most researches are conducted to study western participants and graduate students. In the group’s study, we will concentrate on college students. The possible difference may lay in the different religion and culture that we have from the western countries. The different concepts the Filipinos have as a community, the different beliefs and the different perceptions may influence the results of this experimental research. Methods Participants The sample consisted of 200 undergraduate Lasallian students, men and women of ages 18 and above. The participants will be chosen via random sampling by asking some students for a few minutes of their time to participate in this experiment. Those willing to participate will be asked to fill up the consent form and log-in sheet before starting the experiment. Research Design Between-subjects mixed design will be used. The independent variables are college students. The levels are individual, and group. The dependent variable is decision upon result of risk taking. Procedure Participants were gathered via random sampling and participated in the experiment It will conducted in a laboratory and done in individually A participant will be asked to read risky situations, and be asked what are the chances that they will do the risky behavior (breaking the rule). The participant will be randomly placed in a risky situation where s/he will is alone or with his/her peers. In this experiment, we will measure the difference of the participants’ decision on whether they will break the rule if they are hypothetically with their group or acting alone. References Clark, R. D., III, Crockett, W. H., Archer, R. L. Risk-as-value hypothesis: The relationship between perception of self, others and the risky shift. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology ,1971,20, 425-429. Gardner, M. Steinberg, L. (2005) Peer Influence on Risk Taking, Risk Preference, and Risky Decision Making in Adolescence and Adulthood: An Experimental Study. Developmental Psychology. Retrieved from http://uwf.edu/smathews/documents/peerroleinrisktakinggardnerandsteinberg.pdf Gurdal, M.Y.(2010) Deciding to Decide: Gender, Leadership and Risk-Taking in Groups. Retrieved from http://eaf.ku.edu.tr/sites/eaf.ku.edu.tr/files/erf_wp_1028.pdf Harris, C. R. Jenkins, H. (2006). Gender Differences in Risk Assessment: Why do Women Take Fewer Risks than Men? Judgment and Decision Making, 2006, 1(1), 48–63, Retrieved from http://journal.sjdm.org/jdm06016.pdf He, H., Martinson, P., Sutter, M. (2011).Group Decision Making Under Risk: An Experiment with Student Couples Retrieved from https://gupea.ub.gu.se/bitstream/2077/28122/1/gupea_2077_28122_1.pdf He, H., Martinson. P., Sutter, M. (2011). The Influence of Religious Priming on Self-Control and Risk Taking http://archives.ubalt.edu/ub_archives/inspired_discoveries/pdf/ADAMDspFINAL.pdf Jiang F. X., Jiang, Z. Kim. K. A., Zhang, M. (2013). Family-firm risk-taking: does religion matter? http://www.lingnan.net/seminar/upload/file/20130922/20130922103555225522.pdf Levinger, G. and Scheinder, D. J. (1969): â€Å"Test of the †risk is value† hypothesis,† Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 11, 165-169 Menon, D. (2011, July 25). PRESS RELEASE. Association for Psychological Science RSS. Retrieved January 19, 2014, from http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/news/releases/who-takes-risks.html Stoner (1961): â€Å"A comparison of individual and group decisions under risk,† unpublished thesis, MIT School of Management. Instruments Individual: Instructions: Read each situation carefully. Rate yourself to how much you are willing to do the stated situation, with 1 being the lowest and 10 being the highest. 1. You noticed that your teacher in your math class rarely checks the attendance. Everyone also noticed that some of your classmates are usually absent and cutting their class because the professor’s style of teaching is mundane. You sometimes ditch class with your classmates, but you noticed that you already exceeded the maximum number of absences allowed. You cannot cut the class more than 5 times. You are still tempted to cut the class, because you know that the professor rarely checks attendance. The risk is that the professor might have a roll call, thus leading you to a failing grade at the end of the term. The chances are __ in 10 that I will cut that class. 012345678910 2. You are required to write a group research paper for an English class. The topic must be new and something relevant to your course. You must contribute to writing the research paper. The paper is almost finished except for one significant part of the paper. The deadline is fast approaching you only have until 10pm of that night to finish the paper. You are tempted to plagiarize a portion of someone else’s work by claiming the paragraph of the person’s paper as your own without citation. The risk here is with rise of sophisticated anti-plagiarism software free for use on the Internet, there will be a chance of being caught with the act of plagiarism that will merit a failing grade. The chances are __ in 10 that I will plagiarize, copy a portion of that person’s work and not cite this person’s work. 012345678910 3. You are a part of a cheating chain (a group of students who pass the answers of one to another during a quiz). There are ten of you in the cheating chain a class. The teacher normally sleeps during examination, but he records the class on his phone. After two quizzes of not getting caught cheating, despite the presence of the phone, on the third exam, one of your cheating buddies was caught through the recording camera of the phone. He was the only one who was caught, and only received a warning and a zero on the exam instead of failing the entire course with a disciplinary demerit. The fourth exam is in a few minutes, and the only way to pass is through cheating. You are in desperate need of a high grade. With the fact that out of three exams, one out of the ten of you was only caught cheating, and that the teacher may be stricter due to catching one. What are the chances of you still partaking in the group’s cheating activities or abstain from it? The chances are __ in 10 that I will partake in the cheating chain. 0 1 2345678910 Group: Instructions: Read each situation carefully. Rate yourself to how much you are willing to do the stated situation, with 1 being the lowest and 10 being the highest. 1. You and your four friends noticed that your teacher in your math class rarely checks the attendance. Everyone also noticed that some of your classmates are usually absent and cutting their class because the professor’s style of teaching is mundane. You sometimes ditch class with your classmates, but you noticed that you already exceeded the maximum number of absences allowed. You cannot cut the class more than 5 times. You and your four friends are still tempted to cut the class, because you know that the professor rarely checks attendance. The risk is that the professor might have a roll call, thus leading you to a failing grade at the end of the term. The chances are __ in 10 that I will cut that class. 012345678910 2. You and your seven friends are required to write a group research paper for an English class. The topic must be new and something relevant to your course. Each member of the group must contribute to writing the research paper. The paper is almost finished except for one significant part of the paper. The deadline is fast approaching you only have until 10pm of that night to finish the paper. Your group is tempted to plagiarize a portion of someone else’s work by claiming the paragraph of the person’s paper as your own without citation. The risk here is with rise of sophisticated anti-plagiarism software free for use on the Internet, there will be a chance of being caught with the act of plagiarism that will merit a failing grade. The chances are __ in 10 that I will plagiarize, copy a portion of that person’s work and not cite this person’s work. 012345678910 3. You are a part of a cheating chain (a group of students who pass the answers of one to another during a quiz). There are ten of you in the cheating chain a class. The teacher normally sleeps during examination, but he records the class on his phone. After two quizzes of not getting caught cheating, despite the presence of the phone, on the third exam, one of your cheating buddies was caught through the recording camera of the phone. He was the only one who was caught, and only received a warning and a zero on the exam instead of failing the entire course with a disciplinary demerit. The fourth exam is in a few minutes, and the only way to pass is through cheating. You are in desperate need of a high grade. With the fact that out of three exams, one out of the ten of you was only caught cheating, and that the teacher may be stricter due to catching one. Will the cheating chain be active during the fourth exam? The chances are __ in 10 that I will partake in the cheating chain. 0 1 2345678910

Callie Khouris Thelma and Louise - Moving Beyond the Male Experience E

Even in today's growing world of feminism, young girls, as well as grown women, are being taught by the media to organize their lives around men. Their needs, expectations, work schedules, ideas, and interests become second to the men in their lives. All too often the media associates power and status to men, only to strengthen the barriers between the male and female genders. Take for example Hollywood, where "women get only about a third of all movie and TV roles, and last year earned less than male actors in all age categories..."(Eby, 1). And even though gender should not be used as the determining factor of what one can and cannot do, Hollywood, as well as everywhere else, has proven that the old habits of gender discrimination die hard, if at all. Luckily, there exist screenwriters and filmmakers who aren't afraid to step outside the limitations of gender, stirring up some controversy. Callie Khouri, creator of "Thelma and Louise" is the exception to this rule. Awarded "Best Original Screenplay", the film challenges our preconceived notions of gender limitations by "giving a feminine twist to a pair of all too familiar Hollywood genres, the road picture and the buddy picture"(NY Times, 1991). The "road and buddy movie" usually calls for men in the lead roles, whereas "Thelma and Louise" called for Geena Davis and Susan Sarandon. A film such as this one allowed for two women to get into dangerous trouble, enjoy themselves, and "unmask the other sex"; actions normally reserved for men (NY Times, 1991). According to Ms. Khouri, the script of "Thelma and Louise" was infact, "a conscious effort to counter what [she] sees as Hollywood's tendency to limit women's roles to easily identifiable types such as bimbos, whores, and nagging wives"(NY Times, 1991). She therefore uses the characters in the movie not so much to prove a point, but instead to make a point. At the same time that Ms. Khouri is making her point, the movie becomes somewhat of a catharsis for women. "Thelma and Louise" is supposed to be "about what every woman knows"(Eby,4). Though rape is a major issue that is used in the movie, it is not supposed to be the only issue women relate to. The general comparison between the women on screen and the women in the audience should be the feeling of at one time or another having been threatened, having been treated as inferior, or having foun... ...y she begins to snap under the pressure. In one particular scene, the role reversal becomes most obvious to the audience. Louise finds out that Thelma has left JD alone in her hotel room with the money which Jimmy had brought them. By the time the girls make it back to the room, JD and the money are long gone. Louise comes to the realization that the control she once possessed has now escaped her. Thelma, who watches as her friend crumbles before her eyes, realizes that she needs to break free from her child-like persona and take control of the situation. Thelma takes on a new sense of responsibility and maturity. She gives Louise a chance to finally let her guard down. "This is a movie about the adventures of women, and that's rare. And that really sad that its rare and we can't think of another movie like this"(LA Times, 1991). Thelma and Louise was a movie written and produced to give women an opportunity to finally tell their story in a society where the media is all too often dominated by males. This was an opportunity to move females from the roles of girlfriend and side interest into the leading role. It is no longer about a man's experiences and a man's adventures. Callie Khouri's Thelma and Louise - Moving Beyond the Male Experience E Even in today's growing world of feminism, young girls, as well as grown women, are being taught by the media to organize their lives around men. Their needs, expectations, work schedules, ideas, and interests become second to the men in their lives. All too often the media associates power and status to men, only to strengthen the barriers between the male and female genders. Take for example Hollywood, where "women get only about a third of all movie and TV roles, and last year earned less than male actors in all age categories..."(Eby, 1). And even though gender should not be used as the determining factor of what one can and cannot do, Hollywood, as well as everywhere else, has proven that the old habits of gender discrimination die hard, if at all. Luckily, there exist screenwriters and filmmakers who aren't afraid to step outside the limitations of gender, stirring up some controversy. Callie Khouri, creator of "Thelma and Louise" is the exception to this rule. Awarded "Best Original Screenplay", the film challenges our preconceived notions of gender limitations by "giving a feminine twist to a pair of all too familiar Hollywood genres, the road picture and the buddy picture"(NY Times, 1991). The "road and buddy movie" usually calls for men in the lead roles, whereas "Thelma and Louise" called for Geena Davis and Susan Sarandon. A film such as this one allowed for two women to get into dangerous trouble, enjoy themselves, and "unmask the other sex"; actions normally reserved for men (NY Times, 1991). According to Ms. Khouri, the script of "Thelma and Louise" was infact, "a conscious effort to counter what [she] sees as Hollywood's tendency to limit women's roles to easily identifiable types such as bimbos, whores, and nagging wives"(NY Times, 1991). She therefore uses the characters in the movie not so much to prove a point, but instead to make a point. At the same time that Ms. Khouri is making her point, the movie becomes somewhat of a catharsis for women. "Thelma and Louise" is supposed to be "about what every woman knows"(Eby,4). Though rape is a major issue that is used in the movie, it is not supposed to be the only issue women relate to. The general comparison between the women on screen and the women in the audience should be the feeling of at one time or another having been threatened, having been treated as inferior, or having foun... ...y she begins to snap under the pressure. In one particular scene, the role reversal becomes most obvious to the audience. Louise finds out that Thelma has left JD alone in her hotel room with the money which Jimmy had brought them. By the time the girls make it back to the room, JD and the money are long gone. Louise comes to the realization that the control she once possessed has now escaped her. Thelma, who watches as her friend crumbles before her eyes, realizes that she needs to break free from her child-like persona and take control of the situation. Thelma takes on a new sense of responsibility and maturity. She gives Louise a chance to finally let her guard down. "This is a movie about the adventures of women, and that's rare. And that really sad that its rare and we can't think of another movie like this"(LA Times, 1991). Thelma and Louise was a movie written and produced to give women an opportunity to finally tell their story in a society where the media is all too often dominated by males. This was an opportunity to move females from the roles of girlfriend and side interest into the leading role. It is no longer about a man's experiences and a man's adventures.

The Rise of the West and the Western Dominated Economy: The Atlantic Slave Trade

Much of Africa followed its own lines of development between the beginning of the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries. The rise of the West and the Western-dominated economy, however, was a powerful force in influencing the course of African history. The Atlantic slave trade predominated in economic affairs after the middle of the seventeenth century. The forced removal of Africans had a major effect in some African regions and was a primary factor contributing to the nature of New World populations. African culture became one of the important strands in the development of American civilizations. Despite the rise of the West and the slave trade, nearly all of Africa remained politically independent and culturally autonomous. Among the important trends, Islam consolidated its position in sub-Saharan and East Africa, while in many parts of Africa, independent states formed and expanded. The Atlantic Slave Trade. The Portuguese inaugurated the pattern for contacts along the African coast. They established trading forts (factories); the most important, El Mina, received gold from the interior. Most forts were established with the approval of African authorities desiring trade benefits. Some of the forts allowed trade to interior states. Portuguese and Afro-Portuguese traders (lancados) followed routes to the interior to open new markets. Missionary efforts followed, particularly to the powerful states of Benin and the Kongo. King Nzinga Mvemba of the Kongo accepted Christianity and, with Portuguese assistance, sought to introduce European influences to his state. The ravages of the slave trade were a major reason for the limited success of the policies. Africa, in general, tried to fit the European concepts they found useful into their belief structures. The Europeans regarded Africans as pagan savages who could adopt civilized behavior and convert to Christianity. The Portuguese continued their southward ventures, in the 1570s establishing Luanda on the Angolan coast among the Mbundu. In the Indian Ocean, they established bases on Mozambique Island and other towns in an effort to control the gold trade coming from Monomotapa. On both coasts, few Portuguese settled permanently. Other Europeans followed Portuguese patterns by creating trading stations through agreement with Africans. In almost all instances, slavery eventually became the principal focus of relationships. Added impetus came from the development of sugar plantations on Portuguese and Spanish Atlantic islands and their subsequent extension to the Americas. Trend Toward Expansion. Between 1450 and 1850, about 12 million Africans were shipped across the Atlantic; about 10 or 11 million arrived alive. A number equal to one third of those shipped might have died in the initial raiding or march to the coast. The volume of the trade increased from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, with 80% of the total coming in the latter century. Brazil received more than 40% of all slaves reaching the Americas. The continued high volume was necessary because of high slave mortality and low fertility. Only in the southern United States did slaves have a positive growth rate. Other slave trades—trans-Saharan, Red Sea, and East African—under Muslim control, added another 3 million individuals to the total. Demographic Patterns. The Saharan slave trade to the Islamic world carried mostly women for sexual and domestic employment. The Atlantic trade concentrated on young men fit for hard labor in the Americas. African societies who sold slaves might keep women and children for their own uses. The Atlantic trade had an important demographic effect on parts of western and central Africa; the population there in 1850 might have been one half of what it would have been without the trade. The women and children not exported skewed the balance of the sexes in African-enslaving societies. The introduction of American crops, such as maize and manioc, helped suffering regions to recover from population losses. Organization of the Trade. Control over the slave trade reflected the European political situation. Until 1630, the Portuguese were the principal suppliers. The Dutch became major competitors after they seized El Mina in 1630. By the 1660s, the English worked to supply their plantation colonies. The French became major carriers in the eighteenth century. Each nation established forts for receiving slaves. Tropical diseases caused both resident Europeans and the crews of slave-carrying ships high mortality rates. The Europeans dealt with local rulers, calculating value in currencies composed of iron bars, brass rings, and cowry shells. The Spanish had a system in which a healthy man was considered a standard unit called an â€Å"Indies piece. Slaves arrived at the coast as a result of warfare and of purchase and movement by indigenous traders. Dahomey had a royal monopoly on slave flow. There have been arguments about the profitability of the slave trade. It has been suggested that its profits were a key element for the rise of commercial capitalism and the Industrial Revolution. Individual voyages certainly did bring profits to merchant s and specializing ports. But considerable risks were involved. English profitability in the late eighteenth century was about 5% to 10%, about equal to other commercial ventures. The full economic importance is difficult to determine because of its direct links to the plantation and mining economies of the Americas. Goods were exchanged among Europe, Africa, and the Americas in complex patterns. The slave trade surely contributed to emerging Atlantic capitalism, while at the same time making African economies dependent on European trade and linked to the world economy. African Societies, Slavery, and the Slave Trade. The Atlantic trade transformed African patterns of slavery. Africans had developed many forms of servitude in their nonegalitarian societies. With land controlled by the state, slaves were an important way for individuals and lineages to gain wealth and status. Slaves held many occupations. Their treatment ranged from the relatively benign, when they were incorporated into kinship systems, to severe economic and social exploitation, when ruling hierarchies exercised power. The Atlantic trade opened new opportunities to slave-holding societies for expansion and intensification of slavery. Enslavement of women was central to African society. The Sudanic states had introduced Islamic concepts of slavery. The existence of slavery allowed Europeans to mobilize commerce in slaves by tapping existing structures with the assistance of interested African rulers. Slaving and African Politics. Most of the states of western and central Africa were small and unstable. The continuing wars elevated the importance of the military and promoted the slave trade. Increasing centralization and hierarchy developed in the enslaving societies; those attacked reacted by augmenting self-sufficiency and antiauthoritarn ideas. A result of the presence of the Europeans along the western coast was a shift of the locus of African power. Inland states close to the coast, and thus free from direct European influence, through access to Western firearms and other goods, became intermediaries in the trade and expanded their influence. Asante and Dahomey. Among the important states developing during the slave trade era was the empire of Asante among the Akan people. Centered on Kumasi, Asante was between the coast and the inland Hausa and Mande trading regions. Under the Oyoko clan, the Asante gained access to firearms after 1650 and began centralizing and expanding. Osei Tutu became the asantehene, the supreme civil and military leader, of the Akan clans. By 1700, the Dutch along the coast were dealing directly with the new power. Through control of gold-producing regions and slaves, Asante remained dominant in the Gold Coast until the 1820s. In the Bight of Benin, the state of Benin was at the height of its power when Europeans arrived. The ruler for a long period controlled the trade with Europeans; slaves never were a primary commodity. The kingdom of Dahomey among the Fon peoples had a different response to the Europeans. It emerged around Abomey in the seventeenth century; by the 1720s, access to firearms led to the formation of an autocratic regime based on trading slaves. Under Agaja (1708-1740), Dahomey expanded to the coast, seizing the port of Whydah. The state maintained its policies into the nineteenth century. Too much emphasis on the slave trade obscures creative processes occurring in many African states. The growing divine authority of rulers paralleled the rise of absolutism in Europe. New political forms emerged that limited the power of some monarchs. In the Yoruba state of Oyo, a council and king shared authority. Art, crafts, weaving, and wood carving flourished in many regions. Benin and the Yoruba states created remarkable wood and ivory sculptures. East Africa and the Sudan. On Africa's east coast, the Swahili trading towns continued a commerce of ivory, gold, and slaves for Middle Eastern markets. A few slaves went to European plantation colonies. On Zanzibar and other islands, Arabs, Indians, and Swahili produced cloves with slave labor. In the interior, African peoples had created important states. Migrants from the upper Nile valley moved into Uganda and Kenya, where they mixed with Bantu-speaking inhabitants. Strong monarchies developed in Bunyoro and Buganda. In western Africa, in the northern savanna, the process of Islamization entered a new phase linking it with the external slave trade and the growth of slavery. Songhay broke up in the sixteenth century and was succeeded by new states. The Bambara of Segu were pagan; the Hausa states of northern Nigeria were ruled by Muslims, although most of the population followed African religions. Beginning in the 1770s, Muslim reform movements swept the western Sudan. In 1804, Uthman Dan Fodio, a Fulani Muslim, inspired a religious revolution that won control of most of the Hausa states. A new and powerful kingdom developed at Sokoto. The effects of Islamization were felt widely in the West African interior by the 1840s. Cultural and social change accelerated. Many war captives were dispatched to the coast or across the Sahara for the slave trade. The level of local slave labor also increased in agricultural and manufacturing enterprises. White Settlers and Africans in Southern Africa. By the sixteenth century, Bantu-speaking peoples occupied the eastern regions of southern Africa. Drier western lands were left to the indigenous Khoikhoi and San. Migration, peaceful contacts, and war characterized the relations between the groups. The Bantu peoples practiced agriculture and herding, worked iron and copper, and traded with neighbors. Chiefdoms of various sizes, where leaders ruled with popular support, were typical. New chiefdoms continually emerged, resulting in competition for land and political instability. In the Dutch colony at Cape Town, established in 1652, the settlers developed large estates worked by slaves. Colonial expansion led to successful wars against the San and Khoikhoi. By the 1760s, the Afrikaners crossed the Orange River and met the Bantu. Competition and war over land resulted. Britain occupied the Dutch colony in 1795 and gained formal possession in 1815. British efforts to limit Afrikaner expansion were unsuccessful, and frequent fighting occurred between the Afrikaners and Africans. Some Afrikaners, seeking to escape British control, migrated beyond colonial boundaries and founded autonomous states. The Mfecane and the Zulu Rise to Power. By 1818, a new leader, Shaka, gained authority among the Nguni people. He created a formidable military force of regiments organized on lineage and age lines. Shaka's Zulu chiefdom became the center of a new political and military organization that absorbed or estroyed rivals. Shaka was assassinated in 1828, but his successors ruled over a still-growing polity. The rise of the Zulu and other Nguni chiefdoms marked the beginning of the Mfecane, a time of wars and wandering. Defeated peoples fled into new regions and created new states—among them the Swazi and Lesotho—by using Zulu tactics. The Afrikanersâ⠂¬â„¢ superior firepower enabled them to hold their lands. The Zulus remained powerful until defeated during the 1870s by the British. The basic patterns of conflict between Europeans and Africans took form during this era. In Depth: Slavery and Human Society. Slavery has existed in both complex and simpler societies from the earliest times. Coerced labor took different forms: indentured servants, convict laborers, debt peons, chattel slaves. The denial of control over an individual’s labor was the essential characteristic of slavery systems. It was easier to enslave people outside one’s own society, to exploit differences in culture, language, and color. The attitude of Europeans and non-African Muslims thus contributed to the development of modern racism. The campaign against slavery that grew from Enlightenment ideas was an important turning point in world history. Slavery has persisted in a few societies until the present, but few individuals openly defend the institution. African slavery was important in shaping the modern world. It was one of the early international trades, and it assisted the development of capitalism. Vociferous debate continues about many interpretations of the effect of the trade on African and American societies. The African Diaspora. In the Americas, slaves came in large enough numbers to become an important segment of the New World population. African cultures adapted to their new physical and social environments. The slave trade linked Africa and the Americas; it was the principal way in which African societies joined the world economy. Africans participating in the commerce dealt effectively with the new conditions, using the wealth and knowledge gained to the advantage of their states. Slave Lives. The slave trade killed millions of Africans; family and community relationships were destroyed. As many as one third of captives may have died on their way to shipping ports; shipboard mortality reached about 8%. The trauma of the Middle Passage, however, did not strip Africans of their culture, and they interjected it into the New World. Africans in the Americas. African slaves crossed the Atlantic to work in New World plantations and mines. The plantation system developed on Atlantic islands was transferred to the Americas. Africans quickly replaced Indians and indentured Europeans as agricultural laborers. Slaves also mine d gold and silver and labored in many urban occupations. In early seventeenth-century Lima, Africans outnumbered Europeans. American Slave Societies. In all American slave societies, a rough social hierarchy developed. Whites were at the top, slaves at the bottom. Free people of color were in-between. Among the slaves, owners created a hierarchy based on origin and color. Despite the many pressures, slaves retained their own social perceptions: many slave rebellions were organized on ethnic and political lines. Slave-based societies varied in composition. Africans formed the overwhelming majority of the population on Caribbean islands; high mortality ensured a large number of African-born individuals. Brazil had a more diverse population. Many slaves were freed, and miscegenation was common. Slaves made up 35% of the population; free people of color were equal in number. The southern British North American colonies differed in that a positive growth rate among slaves lessened the need for continuing imports. Manumission was uncommon, and free people of color were under 10% of Afro-American numbers. Thus, slavery was less influenced by African ways. The People and Gods in Exile. Africans worked under extremely harsh conditions. The lesser numbers of women brought to the New World limited opportunities for family life. When a family was present, its continuance depended on the decisions of the owner. Despite the difficulties, most slaves lived in family units. Many aspects of African culture survived, especially when a region had many slaves from one African grouping. African culture was dynamic and creative, incorporating customs that assisted survival from different African ethnicities or from their masters. Religion demonstrates this theme. African beliefs mixed with Christianity, or survived independently. Haitian vodun is a good example of the latter. Muslim Africans tried to hold their beliefs; in 1835, a major slave rising in Brazil was organized by Muslim Yoruba and Hausa. Resistance to slavery was a common occurrence. Slaves ran away and formed lasting independent communities; in seventeenth-century Brazil, Palmares, a runaway slave state under Angolan leadership, had a population of 10,000. In Suriname, runaway slaves formed a still-existing community with a culture fusing West African, Indian, and European elements. The End of the Slave Trade and the Abolition of Slavery. The influences causing the end of the slave trade and slavery were external to Africa. The continued flourishing of slave-based economies in Africa and the Americas makes it difficult to advance economic self-interest as a reason for ending the slave trade. Africans had commercial alternatives, but they did not affect the supply of slaves. Enlightenment thinkers during the eighteenth century condemned slavery and the slave trade as immoral and cruel. The abolitionist movement gained strength in England and won abolition of the slave trade for Britons in 1807. The British pressured other nations to follow course, although the final end of New World slavery did not occur until Brazilian abolition in 1888.